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Rapid economic development over the last two decades has made Asia fertile ground for Super Skyscrapers buildings, and the Property/Casualty premiums associated with them bode well for insurers. But underwriters should be careful not to underestimate the high rise fire risk and its potential for outsize claims. Today Asia has more Super Skyscrapers buildings than any other region in the world. Super Skyscrapers of 250-300 meters now represent the mainstream building height range, accounting for 57.3% of the total. Not only that, but the construction of Super Skyscrapers over 400 meters has increased significantly, and in the future, such “ultra” high rise buildings will be concentrated in Asia. According to the 2016 Review Report of The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat: “For the third year running, the world has built more 200-meter-plus buildings than any other year (128), beating the previous record of 114 in 2015. The momentum of Asia (not including the Middle East) has been unyielding for many years, and 2016 only serves to reinforce this trend further. The region recorded 107 of the 128 completions for the year or 84% of the total... “A majority of these buildings are located in China. For the ninth year running, China had the most 200-meter-plus completions with 84, representing 67% of the global 2016 total, and marking a 24% increase over its previous record of 68 in 2015.2 Thirty-one cities in China had at least one 200-meter-plus building completion, with Shenzhen outperforming any other city in the world, with 11. Trailing behind Shenzhen are Chongqing and Guangzhou, each with six completions, followed by Chengdu and Dalian with five apiece.” In China alone, 35 buildings of over 500 meters were reported to be either completed or under construction in late 2015, and by 2025 there will be more than 1,300 Super Skyscrapers buildings built that are over the 150 meters mark. While Super Skyscrapers buildings are mainly concentrated in Asia, more than 90% will be located in mainland China. From an insurance perspective, however, insurers should view the impressive growth of Super Skyscrapers buildings in both number and height in the context of their potential for large-scale loss of life and significant Property/Casualty claims. The charred remains of the Grenfell Tower residential building (68 meters/24 stories) in London, whereas many as 80 people perished, is a stark reminder of the human cost of a high rise fire; the insurance loss is likely to be staggering. Several expensive high rise fire incidents occurred in recent years. For example, the media reported that Dubai-based Orient Insurance paid USD332 million to Dubai’s Emaar Properties, compensating the fire at the Address Downtown hotel (302 meters/63 stories) on 31 December 2015. Such Super Skyscrapers building fires usually catch public attention. Widely reported Super Skyscrapers fires also occurred in Chicago, Caracas and Madrid, for example. But some less well known Super Skyscrapers fires occurred in China recently, such as the Beijing CCTV north peripheral building (160 meters/30 stories) fire in 2009, the Shanghai Jiaozhou residential building (87 meters/28 stories) fire in 2010 and Shenyang Royal Wanxin Hotel (219 meters/4 stories) fire in 2011. All such fire incidents resulted in enormous economic losses and sometimes with a tragically high death toll. Underwriting challenges Super Skyscrapers buildings pose a significant challenge to the insurance industry; while events might be of low frequency, they can have very high loss severity. Underwriters face numerous technical challenges when rating Super Skyscrapers buildings because they often have unique and novel architectural designs – for example, podiums, atriums, and multiple towers. The height of these buildings also increases fire exposure, which requires the underwriters to reasonably and realistically evaluates the effectiveness of fire prevention and suppression measures and the accessibility for firefighting. Such Super Skyscrapers risks always need to be assessed carefully with a technical survey report beyond mere visual inspection. In addition to underwriting, claims management can also be very challenging. For example, it is tough to determine the damage to structural integrity, which complicates whether to repair or rebuild. The decision to rebuild translates into a total loss (or constructive total loss), so insurance underwriters need to consider a 100% fire loss for Super Skyscrapers buildings. Another claims management difficulty is the myriad of different types of policies involved in a Super Skyscrapers building fire. In addition to the first-party property coverage and loss of life, a wide variety of Casualty and Liability insurances address t hird-party elements, consequential loss, errors and omissions, law and ordinance, and various professional indemnity and guarantee issues. All of the above insurance challenges and difficulties require a high level of professional expertise and technical knowledge to cope with higher exposure for Super Skyscrapers buildings. Case-by-case codes Fire safety for Super Skyscrapers buildings is a significant challenge for architects, engineers, property management companies, fire departments – and insurers. Even for buildings over a certain height, there are no proven building codes for fire in most if not all countries in the world. Most countries adopt a case-by-case principle for Super Skyscrapers buildings and call for performance-based design. For example, in China, building fire codes specify mandatory requirements and rules for buildings below 100 meters high and higher standards with five categories of special needs for those above 100 meters, up to 250 meters. For Super Skyscrapers buildings, the code specifies firefighting access, refuge floors, rooftop helicopter pad, high fire resistance standards, and enclosed lift shafts, as well as vertical fire compartmentation. However, the fire code for buildings of over 250 meters adopts the case-by-case principle and requires performance-based design. The China Fire Codes GB50016-2014 stipulate that buildings over 250 meters must comply with the existing fire codes. Plus, more vigorous fire prevention measures need to be adopted. Therefore, the fire prevention design should be submitted to the relevant state-level firefighting supervision department for a particular expert panel study before approval is granted. In the last few years, some major cities in China that are home to Super Skyscrapers buildings – such as Shenzhen and Chongqing – have introduced their fire safety codes to design buildings over 250 meters. Unique characteristics Super Skyscrapers civil buildings have many unique characteristics, such as many occupants, longer egress time and distance, smoke movement and fire control. Once a fire occurs, it is likely to cause heavy casualties and tremendous property damage. Challenges include firefighting accessibility, fire compartmentation, particularly for the vertical fire spread, refuge and evacuation, water supply and pressure, emergency electricity supply, and others. The increasing use of new materials for structural components, plastic insulation and facade also complicate fire prevention design and firefighting. In addition, the fire codes for Super Skyscrapers buildings are further complicated by other design codes, such as structural, anti-seismic, wind velocity, ground load-bearing, and their novel architectural design. It is also a universal principle that Super Skyscrapers fire safety codes focus on life-saving in the event of fire rather than extinguishing the fire to protect the property – as should be the case. But it leaves the property of high rise buildings vulnerable and open for severe damage and even destruction in the event of a fire. With more tall buildings altering the skyline in Asia and other parts of the world, safety code bodies, architects and construction firms, fire departments, insurance companies and the general public need to raise their awareness of Super Skyscrapers fire risk. In addition, all parties should be jointly committed to enhancing fire safety standards and implementing more robust risk management procedures.

The many festivals and holidays in Malaysia bring fun and festivities with the holidays, which means increased inventory and increased fire risk for warehouses. The holiday season is hectic for warehouses, but you should not let your fire protection fall through the cracks. Preventing fires and protecting your property from the costly and dangerous effects of fires is of utmost importance. Increased and unusual staffing schedules, blocked pipes, and expanded inventory and waste are all circumstances that put your warehouse at an increased risk of fire. Keep reading for some tips on how to protect your warehouse property from fire, and contact Hegel today for fire protection services. INSPECT AND TEST ALL OF YOUR FIRE PROTECTION EQUIPMENT If your warehouse has a fire protection system already in place, it most likely includes a fire alarm system and fire extinguishers. Depending on your warehouse stores’ type of products and materials, you may also have a sprinkler system or a fire suppression system. It’s essential to have these protections in place throughout your property. However, these systems will not protect you if they are not in working order; therefore, it is crucial to have your fire alarm system, fire extinguishers, sprinkler system, or fire suppression system inspected and tested regularly. Fire alarm systems, fire extinguishers, sprinkler systems, and fire suppression systems are required to be tested and inspected at intervals laid out by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards 10 and 72, as well as your local fire codes. Hegel provides fire protection equipment testing and inspection services for your fire alarm systems, fire extinguishers, sprinkler systems, and fire suppression systems as the NFPA and local municipality fire codes require. Regular inspections and tests can keep your protection systems working in order and ready to activate if a fire is detected. INSTALL ANY MISSING FIRE PROTECTION EQUIPMENT Suppose you happen not to have the fire protection equipment mentioned above. In that case, you should contact Hegel today to discuss your fire protection systems design and installation as soon as possible. The best way to mitigate the costly and potentially dangerous effects of fire in your warehouse is to have a working fire protection system. Not only do these systems give your employees crucial time to escape a fire, but they reduce the potential damage a fire can do by alerting authorities faster and extinguishing fires before they can destroy your entire warehouse inventory. In addition, the fire protection equipment listed above is mandatory depending on the size and type of warehouse you own. Hegel can help you navigate the sometimes overwhelming world of fire protection services and help you determine the right fire protection equipment for your warehouse. USE SAFE INVENTORY STORAGE METHODS Although fire protection systems are great at reducing the negative impacts, they do not necessarily prevent a fire from occurring. To prevent a fire from starting in your warehouse this holiday season, start practising safe inventory storage methods right now. One of the most significant hazards during the holiday season is the increased inventory. This leads to overcrowding and the accumulation of waste. However, these habits are some of the riskiest for your warehouse. Therefore, it’s important to establish safe practices like keeping sprinkler heads clear of products, leaving space between pallets, and regularly eliminating cardboard waste. CREATE A FIRE SAFETY PLAN If a fire occurs, you must prepare a fire safety plan to protect your warehouse, inventory, and workforce. A proper fire safety plan will include preventative strategies like: Keeping spaces uncluttered by both inventory and waste to allow for safe fire exit Checking electrical systems for proper function and eliminating faulty cords Prohibiting smoking Keeping the HVAC heating system up to date and prohibit the use of heat-producing equipment A safety plan will also include procedures to follow if a fire is detected, like an evacuation plan and how to use a fire extinguisher. Train your Workforce on Fire Safety To do this, you need to have the cooperation of your employees. Meet with your employees (mainly seasonal workers) and communicate the fire safety plan for your warehouse. Employees should practice the evacuation procedures and properly use fire protection equipment, such as fire extinguishers. Hegel can help organize and teach fire safety training and workshops to make sure your staff is prepared in the event of an unexpected fire this holiday season. Contact Hegel today for more details on fire protection services, equipment, and training.

There is a sense in some markets that the paper and pulp industry will decline owing to the digital technologies with which people interact every day. While this might be considered logical, the reality is entirely different. The paper and pulp industry has experienced steady growth and will continue to do so in 2021. Production of paper increased by more than 450% in the last decades. The demand for paperboard in the world is expected to grow significantly, driven by e-commerce and big retailers increasing their presence in the online sales universe. This sustained growth in production capacity and paper consumption presents several fire risks to companies. It exposes communities that develop around paper mills to the impact of disasters caused by these fire risks. Fire Risks In The Paper And Pulp Industry Paper and cardboard are combustible, but this is not the only fire risk found in these types of industries. Raw materials and finished goods storage are sensitive to fire. The paper-making process includes several stages where fires can occur due to hot surfaces or poor ventilation. The most relevant fire risks on a paper plant are: Storage Areas: As mentioned before, paper and cardboard are combustible. Solid paper blocks and reels have hard surfaces that don’t ignite easily, but usually, these reels can suffer minor damages or have loose sheets that significantly increase the fire risk. When paper reels are stacked in columns, gaps in the centre can act as chimneys, and when fires start in the bottom of the stack, this chimney effect will accelerate smoke and hot air spread, increasing vertical and horizontal flame spread. Wood And Bale Storage Fire Risks Raw materials for the papermaking process can have two primary sources, forestry products (mainly wood) or recycled cardboard and paper. Wood storage presents several challenges, mainly due to wood chips that are highly combustible and, in some cases, even explosive. Bale storage also presents a high fire risk, as loose materials are always present. Fire in the baled paper is difficult to extinguish and generates heavy smoke. In many recycling facilities, these paper bales are stored outdoors, where paper or rags soaked in flammable liquids embedded between the paper sheets can ignite, resulting in fast-spreading fire. Chemicals, Flammable Liquids And Gases It is also possible to find different types of chemicals, flammable liquids, and gases used in the papermaking process. These materials have fire-related risks that need to be taken into consideration. Production Areas: In pulp factories, there are several long-distance conveyors that transport wood and wood chips. These conveyors constitute a fire risk, and the most probable causes of fire are bearing damage, overheating the conveyor and igniting chips in the environment. IR Dryers, A Common Source Of Fire After the wood has been transported, chipped and digested, the papermaking process becomes exceptionally humid due to the large amounts of hot water and steam needed. As soon as the pulp fibre sheet starts to dry, the hot surfaces in contact with the paper sheets can be a source of ignition. IR dryers used in the process are also a common source of fire in the paper industry. When the sheet of paper is formed, close contact with reels and bearings moving fast can create static electricity that could ignite loose paper or airborne particles. Problems like these are likely to be more extensive in tissue mills. Paper dust is generated in certain parts of the process, especially where paper shits are slit or cut. Poorly Insulated Steam Pipes Lead To Fire Poorly insulated steam pipes can ignite paper dust or even their insulation materials. Besides, paper dust gathers in the ventilation grills of machinery, causing overheating and igniting as well. The heated oil is used in several parts of the process as well, and if a malfunction occurs on the Hot Oil Roll systems, leaks might occur, exposing hot surfaces to this oil and causing ignitions. A paper mill has hydraulically operated machinery, where leaks or sprays might ignite as well. Service Areas: As in many other manufacturing facilities, fire can find several service areas. Electrical and network equipment rooms have an inherent fire risk due to damaged wires or equipment, overheating or short circuits in high voltage circuits. Transformer and generator areas entail fire risks as well. High Fire Risk For Boiler Rooms Hot water and steam are vital components of the papermaking process. For this reason, paper plants use high capacity boilers that flammable liquids or gases can power. We can consider high fire risk for boiler rooms. Flammable gas distribution systems can be ignition sources in case of leaks or damaged pipes or valves. In addition to the fire risks mentioned in these areas, many maintenance operations can also pose a fire risk, mainly when hot works are being performed. Sparks caused by welding or using specific tools can ignite paper sheets or dust in the air. Poor housekeeping and buildup of paper dust, for example, increases the risk associated with maintenance and construction works. Prevention, The First Line Of Defense According to the Health and Safety Executive from the United Kingdom, 60% of fires on paper mills are caused by machine faults and poor housekeeping. The first line of defence to avoid fire risks in paper plants is prevention. As mentioned before, a high number of fires in these types of facilities occur because of poor housekeeping and machine malfunction. The key is to identify the risks and possible ignition sources and apply measures to minimise them. As in many industries, fire protection has two main components: Passive and Active protection. Passive Fire Protection Measures Passive measures include fire-rated walls, ceilings, and floors in the most critical areas. Plant Operators should physically separate chemical storage areas from other dangerous areas; if this is not possible, then the walls separating areas should be fire-rated, and operators must store materials in a way that minimises the risk of fire spread by radiation or conduction. Proper compartmentalisation and intumescent protection of structural elements should be part of the package as well. Passive measures include adequate ventilation and smoke control. As mentioned before, paper dust is a significant fire risk, which is why ventilation and cleaning of hoods over the paper machine is essential to minimise the possibility of ignition. Fire resisting construction should be designed with the following goals in mind: Protection of escape routes Form compartments to contain fires that might occur Separate areas of higher fire risk Protect load-bearing and structural members to minimise the risk of collapse Sprinkler Systems, Gas Extinguishing Systems And Hose Reels Active fire protection includes sprinkler systems, gas extinguishing systems and hose reels to support fire brigades. Operators should protect finished goods stored indoors with sprinkler systems, and the same should be considered for chemical storage areas and certain raw materials. Paper bales ideally should be protected by sprinklers that are suitably designed to cope with the height and located, in all cases, 3 meters above the level of bales stacked vertically (which should not exceed 5 meters height). Spark Detectors In Hoods, Pipes And Ventilation Systems Dangerous sparks could be generated in several parts of the papermaking process, which is why spark detectors must be installed in hoods, pipes, and ventilation systems. Engineers can use water spray and Co2 methods to protect machinery against these risks. Means to fight fires, like extinguishers and hose reels, should be provided to support fire brigades. Engineers should adequately identify all the elements, and all personnel should be trained and made aware of the location of such devices. Importance Of Fire Alarms Fire alarms are required in all paper mills, and fire alarm call points should be provided in all locations, according to international guidelines, such as NFPA 72 or EN54. The spread of flames and smoke in paper, wood and chemical storage might become extremely fast. For this reason, early detection is critical. Engineers might apply many technologies in the different areas of a paper plant. Nevertheless, dusty or humid areas where regular heat or smoke detectors might fail under certain circumstances. For these areas, primarily located outdoors, innovative state-of-the-art detection solutions might be applied, like Video Fire Detection (VFD). NFPA 72 Standard For Flame And Smoke Detection NFPA 72 provides guidelines to implement this technology for flame and smoke detection, opening attractive alternatives for designers and fire protection engineers. Many EHS managers and fire protection professionals selected VFD because it is the only fire detection solution that effectively covered their needs. Many engineers specialised in fire protection for paper plants explained that they tested linear heat detection, aspiration smoke detection, IR/UV detectors and even beams, but none of these technologies performed as they needed on the dirtiest or more humid areas. Video Fire Detection (VFD) Solutions Outdoor storage areas are often unprotected because deploying flame or heat detection in large open spaces can be costly and mostly ineffective. VFD solutions can detect smoke and flames in outdoor conditions, allowing the monitoring and protection of wood and paper bales in large areas. Fire detection and alarm systems should be designed with the following goals: Minimise the risk of fires, including the use of fire detection technology in areas where standard detection technologies cannot be implemented or are not practical. Minimise the risk of flame and smoke spread with state-of-the-art detection algorithms that guarantee fast and effective detection. Also, reliable algorithms minimise the possibility of nuance or unwanted alarms. In case of a fire, fast detection gives occupants a life-saving time to reach a place of safety before the flames and smoke have spread to dangerous levels. Global production of paper and pulp reached 490 million tons in 2020, with many industries and markets depending on the paper and pulp supply chain. That is why innovative ways to protect this supply chain are essential to sustain the paper market growth in the future.

Hundreds of sensors and devices operating across an entire city – all connected via the Internet of Things (IoT) – combine to provide valuable and actionable information for various functions – including public safety and fire protection. Even as IoT sensors and devices monitor buildings to provide vital information, computer systems transform sensor data into intelligence. Communication advances are ensuring that intelligence is shared when and how it is needed. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) divides innovative firefighting technology into three categories – environmental (smart buildings or robotics), operational (communications), and personnel (PPE sensors or biometrics). Fire departments in intelligent cities can fuse and apply data captured from various smart sensors, computing technologies, building control systems, municipal grids, firefighting equipment, mapping information, and apparatus systems to inform budgeting, planning, operations, tactics, and outreach, says NFPA. Here are some ways that smart cities can provide information and insights to enhance fire safety and protection for residents. Perpetual Monitoring Of Building Conditions, Including Temperature Sensors, To Alert To Possible Fire Dangers Intelligent building platforms can use artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms to analyse building systems, track fire inspections, gather pre-incident data, etc. Smart building intelligence (SBI) platforms can also share and analyse municipal data records for new construction project permits, fire hydrant malfunction, street closures, and event planning, among other information. Faster Notification Of Fire Events, Which Contributes To Faster Response IoT devices that monitor buildings in smart cities can detect fires more quickly compared to traditional smoke detectors. Heat-proof sensors communicate where and when a fire starts, its intensity, nature, and spread patterns. Providing More Information To Enable Firefighters To Be More Effective Improved information flow enhances the capabilities of incident command centres, expands computer-aided dispatch, and provides better situational awareness for firefighters working on the scene. Knowledge of what’s happening on the ground enables streamlined approaches to firefighting and evacuation, enabling “Know Before You Go” smart firefighting. Routing Traffic To Clear The Way For Fire And Emergency Personnel Correlating response plan information with intelligent traffic management systems and collision avoidance technology can help prevent accidents involving emergency and civilian vehicles. For example, the system may reroute all civilian vehicles in a given area to avoid traffic mishaps. Protection And Monitoring Of Fire Personnel, Including In Dangerous Environments Integration with personal safety devices and fire suit technology enables tracking of firefighters to provide incident commanders better visibility into where individual firefighters are working to battle ablaze. Radio-frequency identification tracks firefighters’ locations in real-time. Acoustic transmitters give locations on firefighters who have not moved for a predetermined period. Sensors may soon provide additional information, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide pressure, volume flow rate, heart rate, gas pressure, body temperature, etc. Smarter Fire Prevention Equipment, Such As Smart Sprinklers, That Can Facilitate Fire Response Sensors interface with a sprinkler device and wirelessly transmit status information to a database used by facility managers and inspectors to identify problems. Sensors even enable sprinklers to spray high-pressure mist into flames at the hottest point in a room. Measuring the volume of water flowing through a sprinkler system reflects real-time progress in fighting a fire and informs when and how to send in fire personnel. Automating Fire Response, Including Use Of Drones Fire Department could launch a drone as soon as an incident response is dispatched and then fly to an incident site to provide real-time situational awareness via video streaming from the sky. Communicating Vital Intelligence To Firefighters, When & How They Need It Innovations in technology such as Next Generation 911 and the First Responder Network Authority (FirstNet) public safety network ensure effective communication among firefighters. Low-power Wide Area Networks (WANs) and wireless networks transmit a wide range of data to firefighters as needed, using mobile data terminals, tablets, smartphones, or computers. Systems provide more data-rich information in real-time, such as closed-caption video streams or data from IoT devices. Public safety answering points (PSAPs) provide access to cloud-based computer-aided design (CAD) platforms, advanced location information, and data from phones, wearables, connected cars and homes, and transportation apps. Fire safety and protection is just one aspect of the many uses that can benefit from the connectivity and intelligence of smart cities. However, its impact on saving lives is among the most profound.

Since the 1970s, fire-retardant, low-smoke zero-halogen (LSZH) wire and cable has been commercially available for shipboard applications, offshore marine platforms, rapid transit and similar applications where people are present in confined areas. When combined with other fire prevention and suppression practices, fire-retardant LSZH cables can minimize fire-related deaths and property damage. However, gases produced by all burning materials—whether LSZH or not—are extremely toxic. Several key advantages and disadvantages of LSZH cables are as follows : Advantages LSZH wire and cable produce less smoke when burned, which permits people to exit a burning building more quickly and results in less soot damage to electronic equipment located near the fire. Because LSZH releases little or no halogen gas when burned, it reduces the human respiratory system's damage if inhaled. It contributes to less corrosion damage to equipment near the fire. LSZH jackets have a lower coefficient of friction than some non-LSZH jackets, which can make installation easier. Disadvantages Because LSZH is more susceptible to jacket cracking caused by pulling lubricants or cable bending, special lubricants1 have been developed to minimize cable damage during installation. LSZH jacket compounds usually have very high filler content (approx. 50%) to provide the required flame and smoke performance. As a result, most have poorer mechanical, chemical resistance, water absorption and electrical properties than non-LSZH compounds. The current generation of LSZH cables has not yet established a proven history of long-term performance. What are Halogens? Although everyone is familiar with smoke, halogens are not as well understood. When present in a fire, halogens are a class of chemical elements that can form hazardous gasses. For the wire and cable industry, chlorine, fluorine and bromine halogens pose the most concern. Certain polymers contain halogens as part of their basic chemical structure, for example, chlorine in PVC and fluorine in FEP. Ironically, halogens are excellent low-cost fire-retardants, so halogenated fire- retardants are sometimes added to non-halogenated wire and cable polymers to decrease their flammability—resulting in halogenated cables! Fortunately, halogen-free fire retardants are available, but they are not universally used because of their generally higher cost. The typical halogen Typical Halogen Content of Common Wire and Cable Polymers XLP (cross-linked polyethylene) <0.02 (% by weight) FR-XLP (flame-retardant XLP) with halogen-free flame retardants <0.02 (% by weight) EPR (ethylene propylene rubber) <0.02 (% by weight) PU (polyurethane) <0.02 (% by weight) PE (polyethylene) <0.02 (% by weight) FR-PE (flame-retardant PE) with halogen-free flame retardants <0.02 (% by weight) FR-XLP with halogenated flame retardants 7–17 (% by weight) FR-EPR with halogenated flame retardants 9–14 (% by weight) CSPE (chlorosulfonated polyethylene) 13–26 (% by weight) CPE (chlorinated polyethylene) 14–28 (% by weight) PVC (polyvinyl chloride) 22–29 (% by weight) FEP (fluorinated ethylene propylene) 62–78 (% by weight) Industry Standards Various abbreviations are used to refer to low-smoke zero-halogen cables around the world. In addition to LSZH, other common names include LSF (low smoke and fume), LSHF (low smoke halogen-free) and LS0H (low smoke zero halogens). These names have no official definition, but numerous test methods have been developed and published by industry organizations to define specific performance levels. A few terms that do have official definitions are described below. Plenum Rated: In the United States, a cable must pass the smoke emission and fire propagation requirements contained in NFPA 2622 to be plenum rated. This industry-standard specifies maximum permissible values for flame spread and optical density of evolved smoke, but it does not specify halogen content. The NEC3 requires plenum-rated cables such as types CMP and CL2P in certain applications, including ducts, plenums and other spaces for environmental air handling, such as those above-suspended ceilings. LS Rated: UL standards define LS-rated wire and cable differently, depending on the type of product. For single-conductor wire types that must meet the requirements of UL 443 or UL 834, such as XHHW, RHW, RHW-2, THW and THWN, an LS-rated wire must meet specific values for flame spread, smoke emission and halogen acid gas. However, for other cable types such as TC, AC, ITC, MC, CMR, OFN and CM, an LS-rated cable must comply with only the flame spread and smoke-emission values in UL 16855—a halogen requirement is not specified. In either case, a wire or cable that meets all applicable requirements can be printed LS to indicate compliance—for example, RHW-LS, TC-LS or CM-LS. The NEC permits but does not require the use of LS-rated wire or cable. ST1 Rated: Industry standards define an ST1-rated cable as a cable that passes the ST1 smoke requirements in standards such as UL 44 and UL 83. These standards specify maximum total and peak smoke-emission values but do not specify halogen content. A wire or cable that meets these requirements can be printed ST1 to indicate compliance. As with LS-rated wires, the NEC permits installing ST1-rated wires but does not require their use. One term that is not yet well standardized in the industry is zero-halogen (or halogen-free). A few existing standards define a zero-halogen polymer containing less than 0.2 per cent (2,000 ppm) halogen content by weight. However, other standards have significant variations in test methods and pass/fail criteria. Some typical standards used for evaluating the halogen content of wire and cable are listed below : ASTM D5424 Combustion Gas Analysis (USA) BSI BS EN 50267-2-1 Gases Evolved During Combustion of Electric Cables (United Kingdom) CSA C22.2 No. 0.3 Acid Gas Evolution (Canada) DIN VG 95218-60 Halogen Free Wire & Cable (Germany) ICEA T-33-655 Low-Smoke, Halogen-Free Polymeric Cable Jackets (North America) IEC 60754-1 Gases Evolved During Combustion of Materials from Cables (International) MIL-DTL-24643 Acid Gas Evolution (USA) MIL-DTL-24643 Halogen Content (USA) UL 44, Clause 5.14.8.4 Halogen Acid Gas Emission (USA)

Basic Concepts The five ingredients required for a dust explosion are: Combustible particulates sufficiently small to burn rapidly when ignited A suspended cloud of these combustible particulates at a concentration above the Minimum Explosible Concentration (MEC) Confinement of the dust cloud by an enclosure or partial enclosure Oxygen concentration more significant than the Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC) for the suspended dust cloud The delayed ignition source of adequate energy or temperature to ignite the broken cloud. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has had several definitions of combustible dust over the years. The current definition in NFPA 654 is “a combustible particulate solid that presents a fire or deflagration hazard when suspended in air or some other oxidising medium over a range of concentrations, regardless of particle size or shape.” Previous editions of NFPA 654 and the 2004 edition of the NFPA Glossary of Terms define combustible dust as “any finely divided solid material that is 420 microns or smaller in diameter (material passing a U.S. No. 40 Standard Sieve) and presents a fire or explosion hazard when dispersed in the air.” The reason for the revision is that many combustible fibre segments, flat platelets, and agglomerates do not readily pass through a No. 40 sieves. Still, they can be dispersed to form an explosive dust cloud. In practice, questions of combustibility and particle size often arise when evaluating the potential explosion hazard of marginally small particles or mixtures of combustible and noncombustible particulates. Many laboratories doing dust explosibility tests have developed dust explosibility screening tests called Go/No Go tests to deal with these questions. Chapter 4 of the CCPS Guidelines for Safe Handling of Powders and Bulk Solids describes some of these tests. The ASTM E27.05 Subcommittee is currently working on revising the ASTM E1226-05 Standard Test Method for Pressure and Rate of Pressure Rise for Combustible Dust to provide a standardised Go/No test for potentially combustible particulates. MEC values are determined in the U.S. per the ASTM E1515 test procedure involving tests with various dust concentrations and a pyrotechnic igniter in a 20-litre sphere. The MEC corresponds to the minor concentration that produces a pressure at least twice as significant as ignition's initial pressure. Eckhoff (2003) reports that MEC values are not very sensitive to particle diameter for diameters less than about 60 μm but increase significantly with an increasing diameter above this approximate threshold. The majority of the materials listed in Eckhoff Table A.1 (2003) have MEC values range of 30 to 125 g/m3. These concentrations are sufficiently high that a 2 m thick cloud can prevent seeing a 25-watt bulb on the other side of the cloud (Eckhoff, 2003, p.9). The confinement needed for a dust explosion is usually from the process equipment or storage vessel for the powder or dust. In fugitive dust released from equipment and containers, the room or building itself can represent the confinement. Often, the dust cloud occupies only a fraction of the equipment or building volume, and the resulting explosion hazard is called a partial volume deflagration hazard. Pressures produced from partial volume deflagrations and the corresponding deflagration venting design bases are described in NFPA 68. Example applications include dust collectors and spray driers. LOC values for combustible dust are also determined via tests in a 20-litre vessel, and the ASTM E27 Technical Committee is drafting an ASTM standard for LOC values. LOC values for various combustible powders and dust listed in NFPA 69 Table C.1(b) are primarily in the range 9 v% to 12 v% O2. Paragraph 7.7.2.5 of NFPA 69 requires that the oxygen concentration for an inerted process system should be less than the measured LOC by at least 2 volume per cent for scenarios in which the oxygen concentration is continually monitored and no greater than 60% of the LOC if the oxygen concentration is not monitored. Ignition Criteria Hot Temperatures One hot temperature ignition scenario entails a dust cloud accidentally entering a hot oven or furnace. This occurred in the CTA Acoustics phenolic resin dust explosion incident investigated by the U.S. Chemical Safety Board (CSB, 2005). The cleaning process generated the resin dust cloud during the cleaning of fugitive dust from the area around the oven. The minimum dust cloud oven ignition temperature is determined by oven tests described in ASTM E1491. These include a vertical oven called the Godbert-Greenwald furnace, and a horizontal oven called the BAM furnace. BAM furnace minimum Auto-Ignition Temperatures (AITs) are usually 20oC to 60oC lower than the corresponding dust cloud ignition temperatures measured in the Godbert-Greenwald furnace. Most of the Godbert-Greenwald dust cloud ignition temperatures listed in Eckhoff’s Table A.1 range from 420oC to 660oC. When the high temperature is on a limited area's hot surface, the required surface ignition temperature is higher than the standard furnace tests. Examples of hot surface ignitions in dust explosion incidents include overheated failed bearings and driers. The former would require a surface temperature much higher than the ignition temperature measured in the standard oven tests. Still, the latter might require a lower temperature than the standardised tests because of the possibility of a dust layer remaining in the drier for a long time. Abbot (1990) described an aerated cell test, and the CCPS Guidelines reference (2005) has been developed for drier hot layer ignition scenarios. The aerated cell test produces an exotherm onset temperature at which oxidation reactions leading to layer fires occur. Most of the exotherm onset data reported by Abbot (1990) were in the range of 125oC to 175oC. These temperatures are lower than the dust layer minimum hot surface ignition temperatures measured in the more common tests conducted in ambient air (ASTM E2021). Burning Embers and Agglomerates Smouldering or flaming particulate embers or agglomerates (also called smouldering nests) are often produced by frictional heating, e.g. during sanding or cutting, by local heating associated with hot work on equipment and ducts containing dust deposits, by powder accumulations on drier walls, and by small heat sources, e.g. a portable lamp, accidentally embedded in a particulate pile. A more significant fire can develop if the hot embers or agglomerates remain stationary in a more enormous accumulation of combustible particulates. On the other hand, if the embers/agglomerates are exposed to an explosive dust cloud in an enclosure (perhaps a silo/hopper being filled), there is a potential for the ignition of a dust explosion. Tabulations of ignition sources involved in 426 German dust explosions from 1965 to 1985 (Eckhoff, 2003, Tables 1.6 and 1.7) indicate that smouldering nests were the most prevalent cause of those dust explosions in silos (28%) and dryers (29%), and the second most frequent ignition source in dust collector explosions (11%). Zalosh et al. (2005) describe one dust explosion incident in which the hot nest was caused by some bolts falling into a hammermill used for pharmaceuticals production. More recent research (Gummer and Lunn, 2003) has shown that the ignitions in most of these reported incidents were probably due to flaming rather than smouldering nests/agglomerates since the only dust cloud material that could be ignited by smouldering agglomerates banked up in a 10 cm diameter tray was sulfur, which has an exceptionally low AIT (280-370 oC). Previous experiments cited by Gummer and Lunn indicated that dust cloud required a minimum agglomerate burning area of 75 cm2 and a minimum burning temperature of 900 oC to ignite dust clouds with AITs below 600 oC. The occurrence of agglomerate smouldering versus flaming combustion and self- extinguishment depends on air access and the agglomerate coherence. Burning agglomerate transport experiments reviewed by Gummer and Lunn (2003) showed that glowing agglomerates could be transported large distances through otherwise empty piping with air transport velocities of 10 and 20 m/s. Still, the glowing was extinguished rapidly when non- burning dust was added to the flow. The glowing particles could not ignite the flowing dust even though the dust concentration was above the MEC. Other tests showed that burning nests did not ignite fine sawdust in the transport duct but did ignite the sawdust cloud when it reached the filter media dust collector at the end of the chimney. Several vendors provide so-called spark/ember detection and extinguishing systems to prevent ignitions by burning agglomerates transported through ducting. Optical detectors sense the radiant energy from the burning embers or agglomerates, and the control module triggers water spray through nozzles situated at an appropriate distance downstream of the sensor. Annexe C of NFPA 654 describes these systems. Self-Heating Certain particulate materials are prone to self-heating, which can potentially lead to spontaneous ignition. The predominant chemical reaction is low-level oxidation. Examples of materials that can self-heat by oxidation at relatively low temperatures include ABS resin powder, activated carbon, coal (particularly Powder River Basin coal), and various chemical intermediates. Materials such as freshly manufactured/dried wood chips, anhydrous calcium hypochlorite, and hops are subject to self-heating by moisture absorption/condensation. Organic peroxides and other potentially unstable chemicals can self-heat by exothermic decomposition. Various agricultural materials, such as bagasse and soybeans, start self-heating by microbiological processes. In many of these and other materials, multiple self-healing mechanisms overlap, and it is difficult to distinguish the dominant mechanism at a given temperature. Self-heating is typically manifested as smouldering in the interior of a large storage pile of particulates or an accumulated layer in a dryer. If the smouldering particulates in the pile or dryer are subsequently disturbed and exposed to air, the smouldering can evolve into flaming. When the flaming nest or agglomerate is then transported to a hopper or dust collector, it can ignite the suspended dust cloud, as discussed in the preceding section. Various laboratory tests have been developed to determine self-heating onset temperatures for different sample sizes and configurations. These include particulate basket tests in an isothermal oven, heated air flow tests with a slow rate of air temperature rise, and material in a package test to determine the Self-Accelerating Decomposition Temperature. Application of laboratory self- heating data to plant conditions requires the use of appropriate volume scaling methods described in handbook references, including Babrauskas (2003), the CCPS Guidelines (2005), and Gray (2002). In addition to showing how the self-heating onset temperature decreases with the increasing size of the particulate pile or layer, the scaling relationships also can be used to assess how the expected time-to-ignition increases with the pile or layer size. Engineers can then use the combination of laboratory data and the scaling equations to establish appropriate plant level precautions to prevent self-heating and spontaneous ignition. Impact/Friction Impact and frictional heating during combustible powder processing and maintenance/repairs involving cutting and grinding have been responsible for igniting many dust explosions. Grinders, hammermills, and other size reduction equipment are particularly prone to ignitions during operation. Blenders with rotating element tip speed greater than 1 m/s are also vulnerable to this scenario. Tramp metal stuck in a screw conveyor, or a particle classifier represents another frictional ignition scenario. The vulnerability of combustible dust to impact/friction ignition is characterised by the material spark Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) and cloud Auto-Ignition Temperature (AIT). Testing to measure MIE values is described in ASTM E2019. For example, dust with an MIE of 10 J should be immune to steel-steel frictional or impact ignitions as long as its AIT is more significant than 275 oC. Eckhoff (2003) cautions that simple MIE versus AIT correlations cannot apply to steel grinding and impact conditions that may differ from the experiments leading to similar plots. Babrauskas (2003) presented data on the minimum frictional force needed to ignite various dust clouds. One common friction ignition scenario is a blender with a rotating helical screw impeller. Jaeger (2001) guided how Engineers can use the mixing speed and blender fill level to control frictional ignition hazards. He states a negligible chance of ignition when the fill level is greater than 70%, no matter what the impeller tip speed is. When the tip speed is greater than 10 m/s and the fill level is less than 70%, there is a high probability of dust cloud ignition. Jaeger provides an MIE versus AIT relationship at tip speeds between 1 m/s and 10 m/s and fills levels less than 70% to show which combustible dusts can be blended without any likelihood of ignition. Single impact spark ignition experiments described by Eckhoff (2003) have shown that the probability of igniting a corn starch dust cloud increased with increasing impact energy and that it also depended on the impact velocity. Lower speed impacts produced a much greater probability of ignition than higher speed impacts for given impact energy. The metal combinations involved in the impact also play an important role in the probability of ignition. Steel-steel impacts and aluminium-steel impacts did not ignite corn starch dust clouds, whereas titanium impacts against rusty steel did ignite dust with MIE values below roughly 10 mJ. The titanium-rusty steel impacts produced thermite reaction sparks, while the aluminium-rusty steel impacts did not. Electrical Equipment Electrical equipment and wiring can potentially ignite dust clouds by sparks, arcs, or heated surfaces. Dust Ignitionproof equipment is enclosed in a manner that excludes dust and does not permit arcs, sparks or heats otherwise generated or liberated inside of the enclosure to cause ignition of exterior accumulations or atmospheric suspensions of specified dust on or in the vicinity of the enclosure. UL 1203 describes the design, fabrication, and testing required to certify electrical equipment as Dust Ignitionproof. When electrical equipment and wiring are used in locations in which combustible dust can be present, there is a need to establish the area's Class II hazardous location classification. Per NFPA 70, a Class II Division 1 location is one in which combustible dust is in the air under normal operating conditions in quantities to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures, or where mechanical failure or abnormal operation of machinery or equipment might cause such explosive or ignitible mixtures to be produced. It might also provide a source of ignition through a simultaneous electrical equipment failure (NFPA 70 definition). There are three possible conditions for the existence of a Class II Division 2 location. The first condition is a location where combustible dust due to abnormal operations may be present in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. The second and third conditions refer to dust accumulations that could be either suspended or ignited during equipment malfunctions or abnormal operations. Class II locations are further classified as Group E, F, or G depending on the type of dust material. NFPA 499 provides guidance and examples for the assignment of appropriate Class II Division 1 and 2 classifications for combustible powder and dust processing and handling operations. NFPA 70 Article 500.7 permits Dust Ignitionproof electrical equipment in Class II Division 1 and 2 areas. Similarly, intrinsically safe electrical equipment (in which all circuits cannot produce a spark or thermal effect capable of igniting a dust cloud per UL 913) is also allowed in these areas. Dust-tight equipment is permitted in Class II Division 2 areas. Article 502 of NFPA 70 describes the types of acceptable wiring in Class II Division 1 and 2 locations. Threaded metal conduit together with dust-tight boxes and fittings is one acceptable method commonly used. The use of electrical sealing putty at boundaries of Class II areas is also described in Article 502. Electrostatic Discharges Electrostatic discharges occur are preceded by charge accumulation on insulated surfaces, ungrounded conductors (including human bodies), or particulate materials with high resistivities. The subsequent electrostatic discharge is only an ignition threat if it is sufficiently energetic compared to the Minimum Ignition Energy of the pertinent dust cloud. Pressure Development in Dust Deflagrations Pressures in Single Enclosures Deflagration pressures resulting from ignition in process equipment depend on the dust material, particle size distribution, and concentration distribution within the enclosure—the size and location of equipment openings allow the burning and unburned dust to be vented. If there were no openings in the equipment, the deflagration pressure would correspond to the pressures measured in the ASTM E1226 tests. Since these pressures are greater than 2 bar gauge, most process equipment cannot withstand the closed vessel deflagration pressure even at concentrations near the MEC. Pressures at the worst-case dust concentration often range from 7 to 10 bar. Therefore, NFPA 654 paragraph 7.1.2.1 requires process equipment with an explosion hazard to be equipped with one of six specified alternative methods of explosion protection. The most commonly used dust explosion protection method is deflagration venting. The effectiveness of deflagration vents depends on the turbulence level in the process vessel and the vessel size and shape and the vent design, and the dust characteristics cited above. NFPA 68 Chapter 7 provides dust deflagration design requirements. Deflagrations Involving Interconnected Equipment When process vessels are connected by pipe and ducting, a dust explosion ignited in one vessel can often propagate into the interconnected vessels. Pressures produced in the interconnected vessels can be significantly greater than the pressure experienced in isolated vessels. The reason for the enhanced deflagration pressure in a totally enclosed system is that the initiating explosion pressurizes the interconnected vessels. The deflagration that eventually occurs when the flame reaches the other vessels' dust cloud starts at a higher initial pressure. This effect is called pressure piling. Lunn et al. (1996) conducted interconnected vessel tests with coal dust and toner with Pmax values of 7.7 bar g and 7.1 bar g, respectively, in single closed vessel tests. When the explosions were initiated in a 20 m3 vessel and allowed to propagate via a 25 cm diameter pipe into a 4 m3 vessel with a dust cloud, the measured pressures were 16 to 20 bar g, i.e. more than twice the Pmax values. Inter-vessel deflagration propagation and pressure piling do not always occur. Lunn et al. (1996) did not observe deflagration propagation in tests with a 15 cm diameter pipe. Later vented explosion tests using a pipe with a sharp 90-degree elbow produced pressure enhancement is only one of many tests conducted (Skjold, 2007). However, when the deflagration does propagate into the interconnected vessels, the jet flame ignition of the second vessel's dust cloud produces a much more rapid rate of burning and associated pressure rise. The more rapid burning and pressure rise can render explosion venting or explosion suppression systems ineffective in the second vessel. Hence, there is often a need for explosion isolation systems to supplement an individual vessel's installed explosion protection. NFPA 69 provides the requirements for various types of passive and active explosion isolation systems. Secondary Dust Explosions Most of the casualties from dust explosions occur when the initiating explosion within some equipment or enclosure breaches the equipment/enclosure and causes a secondary explosion in the surrounding building. The secondary explosion occurs when dust deposits on exposed surfaces in the building are lifted by the blast wave emanating from the breached equipment/enclosure and then are ignited by the flame vented from the breached equipment/enclosure. Airblast velocities of 12 to 48 m/s lifted 13% to 44% of the deposited cornstarch. These secondary dust explosions are particularly devastating because they produce large burning dust clouds and pressures beyond most buildings' strength. The two critical prevention measures are installing effective explosion protection for the combustible powder/dust processing and handling equipment (including explosion isolation) and minimizing combustible dust layer accumulations on equipment and building surfaces. NFPA 654 provides requirements for maximum allowable dust layer thicknesses and surface areas with dust accumulations. Some of the other papers at this Symposium offer guidance on how different industrial facilities are attempting to meet these requirements and possibly improve them.

Throughout the cause of system design, specifically Wet System design such as Hosereel System, Fire Sprinkler System, Wet Riser System or Standpipe, Hydrant System, Deluge Water Spray, etc., there are many different things are always lingering in the mind of a Fire Protection Design Engineer. Some of which are too important to miss and are essential to produce an effective and workable system and at the same time comply with the requirement of the Local Fire Department and Insurance Companies. One of the major thought is Pipe Friction lost calculation. Viscous shear stresses resist the flow of fluid through a pipe within the fluid and the turbulence that occurs along the internal pipe wall, dependent on the roughness of the pipe material. This resistance is termed pipe friction and is usually measured in feet or metres head of the fluid, which is also referred to as the head loss due to pipe friction. Head Loss in a Pipe A large amount of research has been carried out over many years to establish various formulae to calculate the head loss in a pipe. Most of this work has been developed based on experimental data. Overall head loss in a pipe is affected by several factors, which include the viscosity of the fluid, the size of the internal pipe diameter, the internal roughness of the inner surface of the pipe, the change in elevation between the ends of the pipe and the length of the pipe along which the fluid travels. Valves and fittings on a pipe also contribute to the overall head loss that occurs. However, these must be calculated separately to the pipe wall friction loss, using modelling pipe fitting losses with k factors. Darcy Weisbach Formula The Darcy formula or the Darcy-Weisbach equation as it tends to be referred to is now accepted as the most accurate pipe friction loss formula. Although more difficult to calculate and use than other friction loss formula, with the introduction of computers, it has become the standard equation for hydraulic engineers. Weisbach first proposed the relationship that we now know as the Darcy-Weisbach equation or the Darcy-Weisbach formula for calculating friction loss in a pipe. Darcy-Weisbach equation: hf = f (L/D) x (v^2/2g) where: hf = head loss (m) f = friction factor L = length of pipe work (m) d = inner diameter of pipe work (m) v = velocity of fluid (m/s) g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²) or: hf = head loss (ft) f = friction factor L = length of pipe work (ft) d = inner diameter of pipe work (ft) v = velocity of fluid (ft/s) g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/s²) However, the establishment of the friction factors was still unresolved. It indeed was an issue that needed further work to develop a solution, such as that produced by the Colebrook-White formula and the data presented in the Moody chart. The Moody Chart The Moody Chart finally provided a method of finding an accurate friction factor. This encouraged use of the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which quickly became the method of choice for hydraulic engineers. The introduction of the personnel computer from the 1980s onwards reduced the time required to calculate the friction factor and pipe head loss. This has widened the use of the Darcy-Weisbach formula to the point that most other equations are no longer used. Hazen-Williams Formula Before the advent of personal computers, the Hazen-Williams formula was extremely popular with piping engineers because of its relatively simple calculation properties. However, the Hazen-Williams results rely upon the friction factor's value, C hw, which is used in the formula. The C value can vary significantly, from around 80 up to 130 and higher, depending on the pipe material, pipe size and fluid velocity. Also, the Hazen-Williams equation only gives good results when the fluid is water and can produce large inaccuracies when this is not the case. The imperial form of the Hazen-Williams formula is: hf = 0.002083 x L x (100/C)^1.85 x (gpm^1.85 / d^4.8655) where: hf = head loss in feet of water L = length of pipe in feet C = friction coefficient GPM = gallons per minute (USA gallons, not imperial gallons) d = inside diameter of the pipe in inches The empirical nature of the friction factor C hw means that the Hazen-Williams formula is not suitable for accurate heat loss prediction. The friction loss results are only valid for fluids with a kinematic viscosity of 1.13 centistokes. The velocity of flow is less than 10 feet per sec, and the pipe diameter has a size greater than 2 inches. Notes: Water at 60° F (15.5° C) has a kinematic viscosity of 1.13 centistokes. Common Friction Factor Values of C hw used for design purposes are: Asbestos Cement 140 Brass tube 130 Cast-Iron tube 100 Concrete tube 110 Copper tube 130 Corrugated steel tube 60 Galvanized tubing 120 Glass tube 130 Lead piping 130 Plastic pipe 140 PVC pipe 150 General smooth pipes 140 Steel pipe 120 Steel riveted pipes 100 Tar coated cast iron tube 100 Tin tubing130 Wood Stave 110 These C hw values provide some allowance for changes to the roughness of the internal pipe surface due to the pitting of the pipe wall during long periods of use and other deposits' build-up. Pipe Fittings Loss Calculations with K Factors Pipe fittings, valves and bends usually have some associated K factor or local loss coefficient, which allows the calculation of the pressure loss by fitting for a particular fluid flowing at a specified velocity. Manufacturers of pipework fittings and valves often publish a fitting's associated 'K' factor. Pipe Fitting Loss Formula The following equation can calculate fluid head loss through a fitting: h = K x v² / 2g where h = pressure loss in terms of fluid head, i.e. fluid head loss K = manufacturer's published 'K' factor for the fitting v = velocity of fluid g = acceleration due to gravity The length of the pipe is relatively long. The effect of the fitting losses is usually considered minor losses and is often ignored during the pipe system's initial analysis. If the piping design contains a partially open valve, engineers should always include the effect and heat loss through the valve since the valve head loss may be significant. Pipe Fittings and K factors database Our Pipe Flow Expert software has a database that contains the K factors for many different types of valves and fittings. It also has special wizard helpers that can calculate the K factor for special types of fittings such as: gradual enlargements gradual contractions sudden enlargements sudden contractions rounded entrances long pipe bends Equivalent Length of Pipe for Pipe Fittings Sometimes the pressure loss of a fitting is expressed as an 'Equivalent length' of pipe, whereby the engineer calculates a further length of pipe that will produce an extra friction loss in the pipe that is equivalent to the loss through the fitting. In this way, adding a notional extra length to each pipe can model the further pressure loss that would have occurred due to the fittings. The 'K' factor of a fitting may be calculated from the 'Equivalent length' (in m or ft.) if the friction factor and the Internal diameter (in m or ft.) are known. The 'Equivalent length' and 'Internal diameter' must be in the same units to calculate the 'K' factor. K = (EL * ff) / i.d. where: EL= Equivalent length of pipe (in m or ft) ff = Friction factor i.d. = Internal Diameter of the pipe (in m or ft, same as for EL) Friction Factor Calculations For calculating the friction loss in a pipe, the Darcy-Weisbach equation uses a dimensionless value known as the friction factor (also known as the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor or the Moody friction factor), and it is four times larger than the Fanning friction factor. Friction Factor Chart / Moody Chart The friction factor or Moody chart is the plot of the relative roughness (e/D) of a pipe against Reynold's number. The blue lines plot the friction factor for flow in the chart's wholly turbulent region, while the straight black line plots the friction factor for flow in the wholly laminar region of the chart. In 1944, LF Moody plotted the Colebrook equation's data, and the resulting chart became known as The Moody Chart or sometimes the Friction Factor Chart. This chart first enabled the user to obtain a reasonably accurate friction factor for turbulent flow conditions, based on the Reynolds number and the Relative Roughness of the pipe. Friction Factor for Laminar Flow The friction factor for laminar flow is calculated by dividing 64 by Reynold's number. Friction factor (for laminar flow) = 64 / Re Critical Flow Condition When flow occurs between the Laminar and Turbulent flow conditions (Re 2300 to Re 4000), the flow condition is critical and difficult to predict. Here the flow is neither wholly laminar nor wholly turbulent. It is a combination of the two flow conditions. Friction Factor for Turbulent Flow The friction factor for turbulent flow is calculated using the Colebrook-White equation: Due to the Colebrook-White equation's implicit form, the calculation of the friction factor requires an iterative solution via numerical methods. The friction factor is then used in the Darcy-Weisbach formula to calculate the pipe's fluid frictional loss.

Fire Suppression Systems With today's demands on IT infrastructure, protection against collateral damage is paramount! Ask yourself, is your IT facility adequately protected against fire? The heat generated from the latest server technology is enormous, the potential for fire is higher now than anytime before, with powerful rack servers stacked on top of each other with serious heat outputs. This article will give you the low down on fire suppression technology, with an unbiased view to the PRO’s and CON’s of the main types of fire suppression options. What makes a fire suppression system work? Standards and Codes of Practice Fire suppression systems should be installed to at least the NFPA, ISO14520, BS6266 and BS5839 codes of practice for fire detection and fire suppression systems. Smoke detection in high airflow environments should be installed as per the recommendations of the BS6266 standard. This standard advises on the number of detectors required based on velocity of the high air flow, this is crucial for high airflow in this type of environment. The Mechanical elements of a fire suppression systems, namely the fire suppression cylinders and delivery pipe work should conform to the ISO14520 standard. In addition to this, a theoretical demonstration of the flow performance should be demonstrated with use of the OEM’s flow modelling software. With all fire suppression systems, the design should be approved to ensure that the pipe runs are not obstructed and can be practically installed without adding elbows and other pipe work accessories to avoid any other obstacles such as light fittings, duct work, etc. Smoke Detection Principles A fire suppression system, must comprise of at least two fire zones and at least two smoke detectors. Traditionally a mix of Ionisation smoke detectors and Optical (Photoelectric) smoke detectors were used to detect a wider range of smoke particles. Today the optical technology covers this and provides more stability of than that of ionisation detectors, particularly in high airflow streams. Alternatively, enhanced fire detection can be achieved with the use of VESDA air sampling systems. Using VESDA smoke detection can provide conclusive detection with accurate testing and measurement principles. Interrogation can also be achieved by looking at extensive event logging, which will paint a picture of events occurring prior to a fire suppression discharge! Operation The fire suppression system uses two modes: MANUAL FIRE SUPPRESSION MODE : This is based on Human intervention, the operation of a gas release call point or manual actuator will discharge the fire suppression agent. The Fire Suppression system will not deploy the system automatically. AUTOMATIC FIRE SUPPRESSION MODE : Two zones or two devices are needed to prove a coincidence. This coincidence is confirmation that there is smoke present and the fire suppression system will deploy the fire suppression agent. The delay from the first stage alarm (first detector activated) to the second stage alarm is variable, depending on how fast the detectors are responding. Once the second detector is activated that system normally incorporates a 30 second delay from alarm to fire suppression release! The Environment that the Fire Suppression system is being used Most fire suppression systems are only as good as the enclosure they are used in. It is vitally important to ensure that the protected enclosure can maintain the fire suppression agent at the highest level of equipment for 10 minutes following a discharge. Why do we do this? The fire suppression system is a fire ‘suppression’ system NOT an extinguishing fire system. Re-ignition will occur should the fire suppression concentration be reduced or if the fire suppression agent escapes/leaks out of the protected enclosure. Room Integrity To evaluate this, the fire suppression installer must carry out a Room Integrity Test. A room integrity test proves fire suppression retention capability of the room. The test procedure compares positive and negative pressurisation against flow. This calculates the accumulative aperture (this is a sum of all openings in the protected inclosure). The room integrity test calculates that rate at which the gas will leak from the protected space. In simple terms, the best way of describing this is, imagine a fish tank of water filled to the very top, the very top being the room height. The tallest piece in the fish tank is like the tallest piece of equipment in the computer room. The fire suppression agent is the water! Now imagine that there where small holes in the tank, this is holes in the protected space. As the water (fire suppression agent) leaks out of the tank/enclosure, the tallest piece of equipment will eventually be exposed to air. If this occurs within 10 minutes, then essentially the room will fail the test. If the water (fire suppression agent) leaked at a slower rate, leaving the tallest piece of equipment covered longer than 10 minutes, then the room will pass the integrity test. Why do we use ten minutes as the datum? The ISO1450 and NFP2001 deem this period as a minimum period to allow human intervention, such as the fire brigade to deal with the problem without the risk of allowing the fire to spread and do more damage! With this in mind choosing the correct fire suppression agent is critical. Summary Of Fire Suppression Agent Inert Gas Fire Suppression Naturally occurring Gases often used as blends, these blends are used to reduce oxygen to below 15% and above 12%. Oxygen levels below 15% will not allow a fire to burn as the oxygen is simply not there to fuel the fire. Levels of Oxygen between 12% and 15% is adequate to sustain human life. Oxygen levels between 12% and 10% will show visible signs of effects asphyxiation Oxygen levels below 10% are extremely dangerous. This type of fire suppression is considered a green option and does have many advantages used in the right application. Inert Gas Fire Suppressions are commonly found with the following blends and names:- Inergen fire suppression - IG541 A Blend of Nitrogen, Argon and small percentage of CO2. This fire suppression blend is made up of 50% Argon, 42% Nitrogen and 8% Co2. What makes this fire suppression system unique? The mix of Co2 into the blend helps a humans absorbation of oxygen in a depleted oxygen environment. Co2 also increases the heart rate and induces hyper ventilation so that the body breathes in more than normal! On the flip side the disadvantage of IG541 fire suppression comes with contaminated air with bi-products of combustion that are breathed in with the intensified inhalation. Argonite fire suppression - IG55 This is a blend of 50% Argon & 50% Blend of Nitrogen. The fire suppression gas is blended to offer better buoyancy for the fire suppression agent keeping the fire suppression gas at higher levels in the protected enclosure for longer! I3 Fire Suppression - IG55 This fire suppression system is the same as above, however, it uses regulated valves to reduce the pressure shock when the fire suppression system is initially deployed! Again this system is a blend of 50% Nitrogen and 50% Argon. By reducing the initial pressure shock with the fire suppression generates in the first 10 seconds of discharge, the required number pressure relief vents are reduced. Argon Fire Suppression system - IG05 This is not as common these days, but is a simple and effective solution. Argon is heavier than air and used as a single compound is makes this fire suppression system easier and cheaper to refill. The disadvantage of this fire suppression system is the weight of the gas which reduces the hold time. Synthetic Gaseous Fire Suppression Compounds and blends of man made chemicals to form a fire suppression agent. The method of extinguishing is basically like a coolant, this to attacks the free radicals of the heat make up in a fire. This type of fire suppression absorbs heat which suppresses the fire. Synthetic fire suppression uses small concentrations by volume which offers practicality and ease of installation, they are normally cheaper than the inert alternatives. We will list two types only, there are more, but all operate in the same way. FM200 Fire Suppression - HFC227 This fire suppression agent has concentrations are set at 7.9% by volume for the room and ceiling voids and 8.5% by volume for the floor void. Concentrations levels higher than 10% are dangerous. FM200 fire suppression is an HFC. HFC’s (hydrofluorocarbon: a fluorocarbon emitted as a by-product of industrial manufacturing) have been banned by the Kyoto Protocol, but HFC’s used for the use of fire suppression systems have been excluded. There is no certainty that HFC’s will not be banned for the use of fire suppression in times to come, but for now there is no banned imposed on HFC227 (FM200). Advantages of FM200 Fire Suppression are:- Cost, ease of installation and it is safe to use in occupied spaces. The floor space required for the fire suppression cylinders is minimal. Disadvantages are that is much heavier than air and the room that it is being used in must be adequately sealed. The FM200 fire suppression agent has an atmospheric lifetime of 36 years and as a result will contribute to global warming if discharge/released! Novec 1230 Fire Suppression - 1,1,1,2,2,4,5,5,5-NONAFLUORO-4- (TRIFLUOROMETHYL)-3-PENTANONE This fire suppression agent in NOT an HFC. It is essentially derived from an cleaning material manufactured by 3M. The concentrations of this fire suppression agent is 5.3% by volume! Novec 1230 fire suppression works by reducing heat in the same way of FM200! The fire suppression agent is an extremely versatile agent! The advantages of Novec 1230 Fire Suppression are, installation is simple. The floor space required for the fire suppression cylinders is minimal and the refilling can be done on site! The Novec 1230 fire suppression agent is much heavier than air and requires a good room seal to be in place. The cost of the agent is almost twice that of FM200! Water Mist Fire Suppression This is a simple but effective fire suppression solution. Water misting fire suppression solutions work only when the heat is sufficient to draw in the micro particles of water. As the heat intensifies, air is drawn into the fuel/heat mixture and so grown the fire. This fire suppression induces water into this heat mix and the fire is cooled and suppressed. Water mist fire suppression has limited uses and is not suitable for IT infrastructures or in applications which will be harmed by the reformed water. Dry Powder Fire Suppression This is effective and works by discharging a blanket of inert powder. The dry powder fire suppression does not fit all applications and is limited to specific application which are not suitable for the fire suppression systems listed above Oxygen Reduction Fire Suppression A novel way of keeping a protected enclosures oxygen levels below 15% at all times. This eliminates the risk of ignition due to the constant low levels of oxygen. Effective in large warehouses where other fire suppression systems become too large and too cumbersome to install! CO2 Fire Suppression Out of all fire suppression systems, CO2 is the most effective at killing a fire but this includes humans too. It is not a suitable fire suppression agent for occupied spaces. CO2 cools the fire and removes the oxygen. CO2 systems are commonly used for local applications, they can also be used for total flooding, but stringent precautions must be used if this is the preferred fire suppression agent!

ESFR (Early Suppression, Fast Response) sprinkler systems have been rightfully touted as one of the best solutions and best warehouse storage investments. But are ESFR systems an all-inclusive solution to warehouse protection? Is it the “miracle cure” to all warehousing problems? Not exactly. There’s a gamut of problems that may arise from a business owner unknowingly moving into a building equipped with an ESFR system. Let’s discuss these potential pitfalls in more detail by giving some specific examples. Background – History In the 1980s, early suppression, fast response (ESFR) sprinkler systems were developed as an alternative to in-rack systems. They were designed to actually suppress or extinguish the fire, while conventional sprinklers can only control fires, eliminating the need for extinguishment by firefighters. How do they work? ESFR sprinklers are designed to release 23 times the amount of water of conventional sprinkler heads and emit larger water droplets, which have greater momentum than droplets emitted from conventional heads. As a result, more water and a greater share of the water reaches the fire allowing the flames to be extinguished. Application In general, warehouse owners can use ESFR systems in warehouses with storage that do not exceed 40 feet in overall height and with a ceiling height of fewer than 45 feet. And there are sprinkler system protection schemes that will allow storage above those heights. These may include in-rack sprinklers or a combination of ESFR with in-rack sprinklers. ESFR systems are designed to protect a wide array of commodities. This provides more flexibility in warehouse operations when compared to control mode (conventional) sprinkler systems, which are designed to protect only the commodities that were originally stored at the time of system installation. If the storage situation requires in-rack sprinklers to be installed to the existing control mode systems of a warehouse building, often building owners prefer to change over to ESFR, simply because then there is no need to worry about damaging in-rack sprinkler heads during normal storage operations. Additionally, in-rack sprinklers have to be removed and sometimes replaced with each new tenant since they own the racks. Therefore converting to an ESFR system is, at times, more cost-effective in the long run. In the most recent edition of NFPA 13, the 2010 Edition, Section 12.1.1.2 states, “Early suppression fast response." (ESFR) sprinklers, shall not be used in buildings with automatic heat or smoke vents unless the vents use a high temperature rated, standard response operating mechanism.” However, jurisdictions where the International Fire Code have been adopted, unless local amendments are used to change the regulations, prescribe that smoke and heat vents are not required in buildings equipped with an ESFR system. Draft curtains/curtain boards can interfere with the way hot air moves at the ceiling (called ceiling jets), which is how most sprinklers, including ESFR, heads, actuate/open. This change can result in failures of the ESFR system. It needs to be emphasized that sprinkler systems are the most critical means of protecting a warehouse. If the sprinkler in a warehouse fails, it typically results in a catastrophic failure of the entire fire protection system. Therefore ensuring proper sprinkler system function should be of the highest priority compared to other protection systems such as draft curtains. If ESFR sprinklers are used next to conventional sprinklers, 2-foot curtain boards are required to separate the ESFR systems from the conventional sprinkler systems. ESFR cannot be applied to racks with solid shelving, except as specified for high bay record storage as indicated in NFPA 13, Section 20.7. Furthermore, ESFR systems cannot be applied to open-top containers. However, since the concern with open-top containers relates to these containers retaining the water (like a reservoir) and not allowing the water to flow down to the lowest levels of a rack, there is no harm if open-top containers are used in the lowest level of the rack (at or near the floor). Once an ESFR system is installed, can any business move in and store however they want? Well, it is a good question. The answer is No. For example, with one exception (NFPA 13, Table 15.4.1), ESFR systems cannot be applied to the storage of exposed (uncartoned) expanded Group A Plastics. Also, each type of ESFR head can protect a different set of commodities. For example, K25 ESFR cannot protect cartoned expanded plastics (such as products with>25% by volume of foam packaging in a cardboard box). Additionally, most furniture warehouses run into difficulties in protecting products with an ESFR system because of their rack storage of exposed expanded plastics. Exposed expanded include mattresses, pillows, synthetic foam packaging (nonstarch based), etc. For building owners or warehouses, where the types of storage fluctuate, the best return for your ESFR dollar is the K17 ESFR head, which protects a large variety of products, but still requires comparatively low water pressures. There are many instances where in-rack sprinklers are required with an ESFR system. For example, in cases where exposed expanded Group A plastics (e.g. mattresses) on racks are proposed, the protection of these products are outside the scope of NFPA 13. FM Global does require racks to protect these products in most cases, even with an ESFR* system at the ceiling. Additionally, close attention must be paid to the ESFR tables in NFPA 13, especially Tables 16.2.3.1, 16.3.3.1, 17.2.3.1, 17.3.3.1 and for ceilings greater than 40 feet. Many of the ESFR options in that table require in-rack sprinklers. * NOTE: FM Global no longer uses the term “ESFR”; however, ESFR sprinklers are viewed as simply K16.8, K25.2, etc. sprinklers when applying protection tables in Data Sheet 89. Therefore if a business owner was moving into a building equipped with an ESFR and exposed expanded Group A Plastics is planned for rack storage, the head's KFactor will be used to determine whether racks are required. In the past, FM Global Data Sheets were used as alternative means of protection/criteria to NFPA 13. This was acceptable to most jurisdictions. The previous editions of FM Global Datasheet 22 did not require sprinklers below catwalks if the catwalk system was greater than 70% open and no more than 10 feet wide. This allowance was specific to ESFR systems. However, with the new FM Global Data Sheets 89, the term “ESFR” has been eliminated. The new requirements for sprinklers below walkways have been modified to a more general requirement that applies to all types of sprinkler systems. See FM Global 20 for the allowances for locations where sprinklers are not required below walkways. In all cases, sprinklers are required below open grids if the open grid depth is greater than 1/2 inch. In other words, FM 20, Section 2.2.1.4.3 Exceptions 13 apply to open grids if the grid is 1/4 – 1/2 inch deep. Therefore in most cases, since walkways are approximately 3/4 – 1 inch deep, sprinklers will be required below walkways. Some of the critical information that is often miscommunicated between business owners, realtors, and fire departments will often result in the incorrect application of ESFR systems. Let’s list some of them: Commodity: To business owners, the commodity is the product they are selling (i.e. the valuable goods). To the fire department and what is needed to determine protection, a commodity can burn in the warehouse. This includes the product (i.e. the valuable goods), the packaging (foam/expanded plastics, etc.) and the pallet (plastic versus standard wood, etc.). Clearance: To business owners and realtors, clearance defines how high they can physically store. Clearances are typically are considered the distance from the floor to bottom of roof structures such as trusses, etc. To the fire departments and code users, clearances are short for “sprinkler clearances”, usually termed to describe the distance between the top of the storage to the sprinkler deflector. Ceiling Heights: To business owners and realtors, ceiling heights are again used to define how high they can physically store. Therefore they consider this measurement distance below the roof trusses and, in most cases, at the lowest point of the roof (if sloped). For the fire department, ceiling heights, when determining types and designs of sprinkler protection, is given by the measurement from floor to the bottom of the roof deck at the highest point. Incorrect selection of ESFR types and pressures can result from these types of misunderstandings. Conclusion While ESFR systems may solve many of the more challenging warehouse protection problems against fires, ensuring that the correct type of ESFR is used a full understanding of the commodity and methods of storage in the warehouse. Careful consideration must also be given to the longterm use and range of flexibility expected by the building owner. Full communication between the fire department and business owner is necessary to ensure the terminologies used by each side is understood by the other party, as that can result in incorrect ESFR types and/or pressures. A final consideration as to whether additional ESFR heads should be required below catwalks merits additional testing.

The Challenge Fire pumps are at the heart of fire fighting systems because they provide the necessary water that a fire fighting system requires. Due to the increased use of petroleum-based products, denser storage configurations (e.g. multiple-row racks), and higher storage-, a more significant percentage of industrial/commercial fire fighting systems are hydraulically more dense to control or even suppress a fire. In layman's terms- pipes are larger, fire fighting orifices (openings) are more extensive, etc. A water supply system must deliver higher volume and pressure to meet these fire fighting systems' hydraulic demands. Many municipal water supplies were designed/installed decades ago when such high demand was not required. The water demand of the town/community has increased over the years, with supply systems not keeping up. Most "domestic" requirements also do not need high water pressures as fire fighting systems require, so municipal systems simply are not configured to provide the kind of pressures fire fighting systems require. There are also other reasons to keep water pressures in check- higher pressures need more significant preventative maintenance costs, safety concerns, etc. Of course, we're assuming there is a public water supply- there may not be one. There might be a water tank that the fire pump draws from, in which case there would be no water at all if the pump failed (at least with a municipal supply, there is some water provided to the fire fighting system, even if the pump fails). A Fire Pump Maintenance Program is a necessary part of fire protection and safety. The fire pump is part of the fire fighting system water supply. It allows the water to flow at a higher pressure to ensure you can put out a fire quickly and efficiently. If the pump doesn't correctly function during a fire, it could result in a significant financial loss due to damages. That's why it's so important to know how to maintain your fire pump. Our Fire Pump Maintenance Program will help you know exactly when you need to schedule tests and services to keep your pump in optimal condition. The Problem Because of the reliance on an adequate water supply, fire pumps must be dependable. They must operate when called upon to do so. The fact is- many fire pumps fail to perform either adequately or even at all. This failure almost always is a result of inadequate or even non-existent preventative maintenance. Sometimes it's helpful to use a simple comparison. Most people who will read this blog have workplaces that they must commute to promptly. Imagine your regular vehicle is unavailable, and you must use another car that has been parked for months or even years without being started. Would that vehicle begin if it had not been run or maintained? It may or may not. This is the same with fire pumps. Fire pumps have water in the pipes. There is an internal impeller. Water has sand/muck/rust/stones and whatever else in it (yes- municipal water also does). Parts that are not "exercised" (run) freeze/slow for various reasons. Motors or diesel engines need maintenance; batteries need attention, etc. If we are to have confidence, a pump will start and operate as it was designed to. Well, we could go on, but I think the point is made that without recommended preventative maintenance, there is a greater risk that the "heart" of the fire fighting system will not pump. Basics on Fire Pumps Let's take a minute to cover a few basic facts about fire pumps. They can be expected to produce 120-140% of rated pressure at zero flow (or churn, commonly known) conditions. The rated point of the pump yields 100% of its rated flow and pressure. The maximum flow expected from a fire pump is 150% of the rated flow at only 65% of rated pressure. These three points help define the characteristic fire pump curves for a particular fire pump. What size of a fire pump is the right one? Well, there are probably as many answers to that question as there are letters in the alphabet. Still, most experts would say that a fire pump needs to be large enough to provide an adequate flow and pressure for the maximum flow expected from any single fire fighting or deluge system, plus an extra (hose) allowance for fire-fighting needs. For example, if maximum fire fighting demand is 1,000 GPM at 60 psi, and fire-fighting (hose) allowance is 500 GPM, then at least 1,500 GPM at 60 psi is needed from the combination of the fire pump and public or private water supply. Some insurers and Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) would prefer that the maximum demand point not exceed the rated threshold (100% of flow and pressure) of the fire pump. Others would accept something between the rated point and the maximum flow point, but few would go all the way to the latter point. It is not uncommon to install one extra fire pump at huge sites so that, even if one pump fails or is out of service for repair, there will still be a more than adequate water supply for the site. An electric fire pump is considered reliable but depends on the ready availability of a reliable electric power supply. Diesel fire pumps are also reliable but have their own power supply (diesel fuel). A common and more reliable method is to have one electric and one diesel fire pump at some larger sites. There is no "one size fits all" answer when it comes to fire pumps. The Solution Preventative maintenance. The following is a brief bullet summary of the inspection and preventive maintenance activities that should occur following the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), detailed in their standard #25- Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems. This should not be confused with NFPA 20 Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection, which does not cover preventative maintenance (some time ago, NFPA consolidated all preventative maintenance into NFPA 25). These points are only the critical inspection points - NFPA 25 should be consulted for a full inspection/testing requirements chart. It should also be noted that testing should be performed by a trained staff member and preventative maintenance by certified/licensed professionals. The control panels contain high voltage, so professionals with appropriate personal protective equipment (e.g. flash suits) should perform the work. It should also be noted that before completing any testing of the fire pump, notify all parties who might respond to an alarm (central station, fire department, security personnel, etc.). Testing Fire pumps should be tested for automatic starting by either opening the test valve on the small brass piping from the fire pump piping to the power controller or flowing water from the primary drain test at a fire fighting riser inch drain inspector's test connection. Electric motor pumps should be started weekly. The pump should be run through its preset timer for ten (10) minutes. Internal combustion engines (almost always diesel) should also be started weekly. The pump should be run for thirty (30) minutes to bring the engine up to full speed, pressure, and temperature. The following should be checked on all pump systems (electric & diesel) Record system suction and discharge pressure gauge readings Check pump packing glands for slight discharge Adjust gland nuts if necessary Check for unusual noise or vibration Check packing boxes, bearings, or pump casing for overheating Record pump starting pressure Observe time for the motor to accelerate to full speed Record time controller is on the first step (for reduced voltage or reduced current starting) Record time pump runs after starting (for automatic stop controllers) The following are specific checks for diesel pumps Observe time for the engine to crank Observe time for the engine to reach a running speed Observe engine oil pressure gauge, speed indicator, water, and oil temperature indicators periodically while the engine is running Record any abnormalities Check heat exchanger for cooling water flow Annual Testing Every year the pump should be tested at full operation. There is usually a "test header" pipe assembly with a pipe leading through the wall to an outside test header that has several valves to connect hoses to (I say "usually" because some systems use a bypass flow meter, which is allowed under certain conditions). The pump is operated at "churn" (zero flow), 100% of required capacity, and 150% of necessary capacity. Fire protection specialists who are competent/trained and have the correct equipment should perform this test. It is also critical that NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace® be complied with (PPE, etc.). This test is critical. It will show whether the pump performance is still adequate or deteriorated at all (in which case NFPA spells out how much deterioration is allowed before the pump must be overhauled). Inspections Weekly inspections should be conducted Pumphouse/room: Heat not less than 40°F or 70°F for pump room with diesel pumps without engine heaters Ventilating louvres free to operate Housekeeping- no combustible storage Pump assembly inspection Valves fully open (except for the test header) Piping leaks Line pressure gauges Suction reservoir Control Panel Controller "power on" light illuminated Transfer switch normal light illuminated Isolating switch closed - standby (emergency) source Reverse phase alarm pilot light off (or normal phase rotation pilot light on) Oil level in the vertical motor sight glass Diesel Engine Fuel tank two-thirds full Controller selector switch in the AUTO position Batteries (should be two operational batteries) Normal readings for voltage, charging, current, and failure lights off. Battery terminals free from corrosion All alarm lights off Engine running time meter reading Oil level in right angle gear drive normal Crankcase oil level normal Cooling water level normal The electrolyte level in batteries normal Water-jacket heater operating Regular Testing Required One thing for sure-fire pumps (all types and sizes) must be tested regularly, preferably by automatic start (most of the time), but also by manual start (occasionally). How often? Some say weekly no matter what, as in NFPA 20. Others say weekly for diesel fire pumps and monthly for electric fire pumps. These tests are a startup and run tests (with no water flow), similar to starting your car on a frigid winter morning. How long should these tests run? Again, everybody has different advice, but I say 30 minutes for diesel pumps (at rated speed and average operating temperature) and 10-15 minutes for electric fire pumps (again under normal running conditions). "NFPA 25, Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems" (1998 edition) contains a full range of recommended tests and frequencies in Chapter 5. All of the specifics are included in that document. NFPA 25 is adopted into state law in some areas and indeed a requirement in that case, but it gives excellent guidance in any case. Get Started Hegel Engineering Sdn Bhd is a leader in fire protection. We can help you with your Fire Pump Maintenance Program to ensure your equipment is properly working and kept up to date. If you're ready to speak with a qualified fire protection specialist, email us at sales@hegelengineering.com today for help.

A Water Spray System for Fire Protection a different variant of the Fire Sprinkler System. Such a system is used in places where a fire is likely to spread out of control within a short duration rapidly. Examples of such places where Water Spray System for Fire Protection are required are; Transformers, Compressors, Condensate Storage Tanks, LPG bullets and Combustible fuels. Is it compulsory to have/install, Water Spray System for Fire Protection? It depends on the type of system, equipment or inflammable liquid in use. Suppose you are using any highly inflammable substance, combustible or catch fire and spread quickly. This system is a mandate for you. How Water Spray System for Fire Protection, Works? Let us take an example to be more specific and clear. In an oil-cooled transformer, the oil is likely to catch fire after a certain temperate is exceeded, and instantly the entire transformer will catch fire and burn from all sides, even though the transformer is made up of metal. To avoid this kind of fire, we use Water Spray System. There may be multiple metal rings of detectors; a detector is nothing but a temperature sensing element. This detector ring is placed next to the most likely spots where the temperature is about to exceed or fire is about to occur. Also, the entire transformer is surrounded by multiple sprays at multiple levels. A spray is nothing, but a sprinkler without the temperature sensing, bulb. When the fire does occur, the detector ring detects this; and gives the signal to the deluge valve or all the sprinkler surrounding the transformer to start all at once. Hence the entire transformer is flushed with water to cool it down. There are two variants of Water Spray System for Fire Protection: 1) High-Velocity Water Spray Systems (HVWS) 2) Medium Velocity Water Spray Systems (MVWS) High-Velocity Water Spray Systems (HVWS): HVWS is generally used in oil-based systems, having high flashpoints. The water sprays' velocity, hitting the system under fire, is critical for successful fire extinguishing action. Medium Velocity Water Spray Systems (MVWS): MVWS is generally used in oil-based systems, having low flashpoints. The water sprays' velocity, hitting the system under fire, if it is high, might actually spread the fire and not extinguish it. Hence, the velocity of the water has to be in range. Advantages of Water Spray Systems Extinguishes fires quickly and prevents fires from spreading over a large area. Minimises the damage caused by fire, and reduces downtimes, protects the future of your business. High flexibility in design and implementation Reduces fumes and binds contaminants. Allows large open areas and thus a more flexible use of the premises. It uses water, a natural fire extinguishing agent available in unlimited quantities at a low price. Medium Velocity Water Spray System (MVWS): Fires on Hydrocarbon are more frequent due to the hydrocarbon's volatility and its property to not dissolve with water and lighter than water the fire extinguishing of hydrocarbon fire with water is not possible. In case of fire on Hydrocarbon, if the water is sprayed, due to the hydrocarbon's lightweight, it will float on the water and reignite them to fire and due to the water's speed, the fire will travel from one place to another place. However, these plant water spray system can be provided as exposure protection. That means if any plant is under fire, the plants nearby shall be kept cool with the water spray system, while the plant under fire shall be applied foam. Hence in this case, where a plant uses hydrocarbon, the exposure should be protected with a water spray system designed as per NFPA 15. This system is mostly used for the protection of the following. Expander & Sale Gas Compressors Off Gas Compressors etc. Quartzoid Bulb Sprinklers (Q. B. S.) Detection is used to detect fire, which will be connected to a deluge valve for the system's auto operation. Q B Sprinklers shall be of 68 Deg or 79 Deg C or any other temperature depending upon the ambient temperature of the plant's location. For the system's electronic automatic operation, the deluge valve shall be provided with pressure sensors, temperature sensors, and an annunciation panel. Operation In case of fire, the Quartzoid Bulb sprinkler shall burst due to heat that allows water in the detection pipe to drain out and allow the Deluge valve to open fully. As soon as the Deluge valve opens, the water shall flow through the piping to flow water to all water spray nozzles mounted on the plant's ceiling. The water shall be sprayed in a solid conical spray pattern to cover the entire plant floor area so that the equipment installed shall be kept cool to avoid heat radiation and further ignition of the fire. The fire shall be control with the help of the water spray system. The indication of the operation of the system shall be available on the control panel with Alarming Siren. Advantages of M.V. Water Spray System The entire area is flooded with foam, which is very useful for fire fighting in hazardous areas, plants, storage tanks, etc., where the manual approach is difficult. Very quick in response. The fire losses are kept low as the area under fire gets foam blanket and cooling due to water content, and so chances of spreading fire are negligible. High-Velocity Water Spray System (HVMS): High-Velocity water spray systems are installed to extinguish fires involving liquids with 65 C or higher flashpoints. Three principles of extinguishment are employed in the system – emulsification, cooling and smothering. The result of applying these principles is to extinguish the fire within a few seconds. This system is mostly used for the protection of the following. Transformers, oil-filled types of equipment of power stations Turbo-alternators and other Oil fired boiler rooms, oil quenching tanks. Transformer protection shall contemplate on essentially complete impingement on all exterior surfaces except the underside, which may be protected by horizontal projection. Transformers present particular design problems for Water spray protection, primarily due to their irregular shape and necessary clearances for the high voltage equipment. Generally speaking, there is much more interference with the water flow on the transformer's sides than at their top. Due to this reason, the protection usually involves a large number of small capacity projectors than a few bigger ones. Often it will be necessary to put more water on the transformer than required to achieve complete impingement and total envelopment. All system components shall be so located as to maintain minimum clearances from live parts. “Clearance” is the air distance between Water Spray Equipment, including piping nozzles and detectors and un-insulated live electrical components at other than ground potential. The minimum clearance is 900 mm under normal conditions. During the operation of the Water Spray system, they are intended for use as safe. The nozzles shall be installed in rows around the transformer and above the oil condenser. Quartzoid Bulb Sprinklers (Q. B. S.) Detection is used to detect fire, which will be connected to the deluge valve for the system's auto operation. Q B Sprinklers shall be of 68 Deg or 79 Deg C or other temperatures depending upon the ambient temperature of the plant's location. A Deluge system (automatic High-Velocity Water Spray System) is a fixed fire protection system, which totally floods an area with pressurized water through piping with open nozzles & sprinklers. The system piping is empty until a hydraulic or other release system activates the controlling valve. The deluge valve has an inlet, outlet & priming chamber. The inlet & outlet are separated from the priming chamber by the valve chamber & diaphragm. In the” SET “position, the pressure is applied to the priming chamber through a restricted prime line. The pressure is trapped in the priming chamber & holds the clapper on the seat due to the differential area. When the pressure is released from priming chamber faster than it is supplied through the restricted priming chamber line, the clapper move & allow the inlet water supply to flow through the outlet into the system and associated alarm device. A water spray system is installed to control fire & to provide cooling &/or exposure protection to such risks where an extinguisher is always not possible or even desirable, e.g. fire involving flammable fluids having flashpoints below 650 C (1500 F). In case of fire, the Quartzoid Bulb sprinkler shall burst at rated temperature due to heat that allows water in the detection pipe to drain out and allow the Deluge valve to open fully. As soon as the Deluge valve opens, the water shall flow through the piping to flow water to all water spray nozzles mounted on the piping around the transformer. The water shall be sprayed in a Hollow conical spray pattern to cover the transformer's entire area so that the fire on the transformer shall cool due to emulsification and fire getting extinguish due to cutting off oxygen due to the coverage pattern of the nozzle. The fire shall be control and extinguished with the help of the H. V. water spray system. The indication of the operation of the system shall be available on the control panel with Alarming Siren. Advantages of HM.V. Water Spray System The entire Transformer is flooded with water, which extinguishes fire at the earliest and avoids further destruction. Very quick in response. The fire losses are kept low as the fire area gets cooling due to water, and so chances of spreading fire are negligible. WATER CURTAIN SYSTEM WATER SPRAY NOZZLES These are similar nozzles as sprinkler, but there is no bulb used, and they have an open orifice that could not hold the water pressure. These nozzles have a threaded inlet and deflector at the outlet and fitted on the pipe array-like sprinkler. This system spray water from all nozzles as the control valve gets open, and therefore the area under fire receive water. The adjacent area also gets water and reduces the chances of spreading the fire. WATER SPRAY SYSTEM The water spray system is basically most useful for various tanks storing hazardous liquids or chemicals. The system consists of a water reservoir, a pump of suitable capacity and pressure, delivery main and distribution pipe array, main control valve(known as deluge valve), water spray nozzle, and heat-sensing element. In a fire, the heat-sensing element, mainly bulb type sprinklers, burst when the rated temperature arrives and causes an open deluge valve due to pressure difference. The valve floods complete main and distributed pipes and starts spraying from all the water spray nozzles at a time. The spray remains under operation till the deluge valve is rest manually. This is the most reliable and suitable system for tank protection as well as exposure protection. Advantages of Water Spray System The entire area is flooded with water, hence very useful for fire fighting in a hazardous area, basement, storage tanks, etc. Very quick in response. The fire losses are kept low as the area adjacent to the fire also gets water protection, so the chances of spreading fire are negligible. Disadvantages of Water Spray System As the entire system gets flooded with water, the water damage is more. This system needs maintenance and periodic checking of automatic operation for reliability during a fire.

A smoke control system controls the flow of smoke in a building in the event of a fire. It keeps smoke from spreading throughout the building and gives the building's occupants a clear evacuation route, and prevents further damage to the building's interior. Smoke control systems (or smoke management systems) are mechanical systems that control the movement of smoke during a fire. Most are intended to protect occupants while they are evacuating or being sheltered in place. Based on MS 1780:2005 - Smoke Control System Using Natural (Displacement) Or Powered (Extraction) Ventilation Design concepts : Smoke obscures visibility and can also contribute to fatalities in a fire incident. It is, therefore, increasingly realised that occupant safety in a fire could be greatly improved by providing an efficient smoke extraction system. Moreover, such systems can limit property damage, both directly by reducing the spread of smoke and indirectly by providing better visibility and thus easier access to the seat of the fire for firefighters. Smoke extraction is one of the tools, which the fire safety engineer may use to ensure adequate fire safety within a building. As such, it should not be considered in isolation but as an integral part of the total package of fire safety measures designed for the building. Thus the need for smoke extraction in any building should be designed in conjunction with the means of escape, compartmentation and active suppression systems. Smoke extraction should be considered under the following circumstances: a) Smoke extraction for life safety Smoke extraction for life safety purposes is of benefit in buildings where means of escape to open-air cannot be achieved within a short period of time and in which the means of escape could be severely contaminated with smoke and become impassable. Examples include shopping malls, atrium buildings and high rise buildings with phased evacuation, i.e. when a proportion of the occupants are expected to stay in the building throughout the duration or part of the duration of the fire. b) Smoke extraction for firefighter access Smoke extraction for fire fighter's access is desirable when: i) fire brigade access is difficult, e.g. basements and high rise buildings; or ii) rapid attack on fire is necessary to reduce fire spread and property damage, e.g. high-value warehouses. In buildings where smoke clearance by natural means may be difficult (e.g. basements, windowless buildings and buildings without openable windows), a powered smoke purging/dilution system is required. NFPA 5000 requires smoke control systems for underground buildings, smoke-protected assembly occupancies and atria, and smokeproof enclosures for high-rise buildings. A licensed fire protection engineer (or equivalent) should be responsible for the commissioning who has an in-depth knowledge of the system's intended design and can anticipate failure modes that can be addressed at the time of commissioning. 2. Properly monitor all smoke control system devices and control points. A fire/Smoke Zone is a space-separated from all other spaces by floors, horizontal exits, or smoke barrIers. Design goals behind installing smoke control or management systems are to provide a secure environment for occupants and firefighters. Allow tenants a safe environment for escape. Allow a safe environment to facilitate fire department operations. Smoke Spill fans are designed to control the smoke movement during a fire and must conform to strict standards as detailed in AS1668. These fans must be capable of withstanding high temperatures for short periods. Smoke extraction systems, designed to effectively remove smoke, heat, and combustion products from the areas affected by fire, and at the same time proportionally supplement the system's output with external compensating air, play a vital role in the maintenance of the fire safety of buildings, escape routes, staircases, etc. Sections of fire ventilation ducts are additionally used to collect and discharge other harmful and toxic extinguishing gases escaping fire areas, as well as in pressure booster systems used to control the air causing overpressure, which is released after exceeding the pressure limit. The stair pressurisation system is another vital component of a building's fire safety infrastructure. This installation increases the air pressure in a stairwell and makes sure the smoke from rooms does not enter the enclosed area when the doors are closed. Defining Smoke Control and Smoke Management A Smoke Control System can be defined as an engineered electro-mechanical system that uses mechanical fans and dampers in cooperation with electronic monitoring and controls to produce pressure differences across smoke barriers that inhibit or facilitate smoke movement. A smoke-control system is used to achieve one or more of the following design objectives: Inhibit smoke from entering stairwells, means of egress, areas of refuge, elevator shafts, or similar areas Maintain a tenable environment in places of refuge and means of escape during the minimum required evacuation time Inhibit the migration of smoke from the smoke zone Provide conditions outside the fire zone that enable emergency response personnel to conduct search-and-rescue operations and to locate and control the fire Contribute to the protection of life and the reduction of property loss A Smoke Management System can be defined as an engineered mechanical system that, based on its intended purpose, uses mechanical fans, dampers and other methods to remove smoke from a facility under post-fire condition. A smoke management system is applied to one or more of the following intended uses: Roof hatch ventilation for smoke removal in high atrium spaces Smoke exhaust fans in parking garages Pressurisation fans in stairwells and elevator shafts Understanding the Smoke Control design and installation process can be difficult with challenges at each phase of the project. These systems are generally code mandated based on occupancy type, architectural construction methods, occupancy loads, and other factors. With no single entity or trade being solely responsible for the entire solution, the interdependency across all professional engineering and installation trades is critical for a successful project.